Mass Media and Communication in India

The Beginnings Of Modern Mass Media

Mass media refers to the various technologies and forms of communication that are used to transmit information to a large, anonymous, and heterogeneous audience simultaneously. This includes print media (newspapers, magazines), broadcast media (radio, television), and more recently, digital media (the internet). The emergence of modern mass media is closely linked to the development of modern industrial societies.

In India, the beginnings of modern mass media can be traced to the colonial period.

• The Printing Press: The introduction of the printing press by Christian missionaries in the 16th century was a crucial first step. However, it was only in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that a vibrant newspaper press began to develop.
• The Nationalist Press: The growth of the Indian press was inextricably linked to the rise of the nationalist movement. Newspapers, both in English and in various Indian languages, became a powerful tool for nationalist leaders to critique colonial rule, disseminate their ideas, and mobilize public opinion. Figures like Raja Rammohun Roy, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Mahatma Gandhi were all prolific journalists who used the press to further the cause of social reform and political independence.
• Colonial Response: The British colonial government was wary of the power of the nationalist press and frequently tried to control it through censorship and repressive laws, such as the Vernacular Press Act of 1878. This struggle between the nationalist press and the colonial state highlights the crucial role that mass media plays in the political sphere.
• Cinema and Radio: Other forms of mass media also emerged during this period. Cinema arrived in India in the early 20th century and quickly became a popular form of entertainment. Radio broadcasting was started by the colonial government in the 1920s, primarily as a tool for official propaganda.

By the time of independence, a basic infrastructure for modern mass media was in place, but its reach was limited, primarily confined to the urban, educated elite.

Mass Media In Independent India

After independence in 1947, the new Indian state recognized the immense potential of mass media as a tool for nation-building and development. The media was seen as a crucial instrument for disseminating information, promoting literacy, fostering a sense of national identity, and spreading modern, scientific ideas.

The Approach

The approach of the Indian state towards the media, particularly the broadcast media, was heavily influenced by the Nehruvian model of a planned, state-led development. The state decided to retain control over radio and television, seeing them not as commercial enterprises but as public service broadcasters with a developmental mission. This led to the establishment of a state monopoly over the airwaves.

Radio

• All India Radio (AIR): The colonial-era radio service was renamed All India Radio (Akashvani) and was developed as the primary medium for reaching the vast rural population.
• Developmental Role: AIR played a major role in broadcasting programmes on agriculture (like 'Krishi Darshan'), health, and education. It was also a key instrument for promoting national integration through its news broadcasts and cultural programmes.
• Vividh Bharati: To compete with the popularity of commercial radio from neighbouring countries like Radio Ceylon, AIR launched the 'Vividh Bharati' service in 1957, which focused on film music and entertainment.

For decades, radio was the most important and widespread form of mass communication in India.

Television

• Late Arrival: Television arrived in India relatively late, with the first experimental broadcasts starting in Delhi in 1959. For a long time, it remained an urban, elite medium.
• Doordarshan: The state-run television service, Doordarshan, was the sole broadcaster. A major expansion of the television network took place in the early 1980s, coinciding with the Asian Games held in New Delhi.
• Role in Nation-Building: Doordarshan also had a developmental mandate. However, it became famous in the late 1980s for broadcasting hugely popular mythological epics like the 'Ramayan' and 'Mahabharat', which attracted massive nationwide audiences and played a complex role in shaping national consciousness. It also produced many critically acclaimed serials that reflected the social realities of a changing India.

Print Media

• Growth and Diversity: Unlike the broadcast media, the print media remained in the private sector and was constitutionally protected by the freedom of the press. The post-independence period saw a massive expansion of the print media, with the growth of newspapers and magazines in English and all major Indian languages.
• The 'Vernacular' Press: The growth of the regional language press has been a particularly significant phenomenon. These newspapers have a deep reach into the towns and rural areas of their respective regions and play a crucial role in shaping local public opinion and political discourse.
• Role as a 'Watchdog': The print media has often played the role of a 'watchdog' of democracy, exposing corruption and holding the government accountable. This role was particularly evident during the period of the National Emergency (1975-77), when many newspapers bravely resisted government censorship.

Globalisation And The Media

The landscape of the Indian media was radically transformed by the processes of globalisation and liberalisation in the early 1990s. The government ended its monopoly over broadcasting and opened up the airwaves to private and foreign players. This led to an explosion of private satellite television channels, the rise of the internet, and the integration of the Indian media market into the global media industry.

This transformation has had profound and often contradictory effects on Indian society and culture.

Homogenisation Versus Glocalisation Of Culture

A major debate surrounding media globalisation is its impact on local cultures.

• The Homogenisation Argument: Critics argue that globalisation leads to cultural homogenisation. They fear that the dominance of Western (particularly American) media corporations and their cultural products (like Hollywood films, pop music, and fast food) will overwhelm and erode local cultures, leading to a single, uniform global culture.
• The Glocalisation Argument: Other scholars argue that the process is more complex. They point to the phenomenon of glocalisation, which is the mixing of global and local cultures. Global media corporations often adapt their products to suit local tastes and cultures. For example, a global channel like MTV will broadcast programmes featuring Indian pop music and local hosts. At the same time, local media industries have also flourished, producing their own content that is often more popular than global products. The rise of numerous regional language television channels is a testament to the strength of local cultures.

The reality is a complex interplay of both forces: while there is a global flow of culture, it is always adapted, reinterpreted, and sometimes resisted at the local level.

Gender And Culture

The new media landscape has had a mixed impact on the portrayal of women and gender roles.

• Stereotypes: Many popular television serials, often called 'saas-bahu' (mother-in-law/daughter-in-law) soaps, have been criticized for reinforcing traditional, patriarchal, and stereotyped images of women, portraying them primarily in domestic roles.
• Empowerment: On the other hand, the media has also provided a platform for raising awareness about issues of gender inequality and violence against women. It has given greater visibility to successful women in various fields and has offered new spaces for women to express themselves.

Culture Of Consumption

With the rise of private media, which depends on advertising revenue, there has been a significant shift in content. The media plays a crucial role in promoting a culture of consumption. Through advertisements and lifestyle programmes, it creates new desires and aspirations, encouraging people to see happiness and identity in terms of the products they buy. This has contributed to the growth of a new urban middle class with a consumerist lifestyle, but it has also been criticized for promoting materialism and creating a sense of deprivation among those who cannot afford these lifestyles.

Corporate Culture

The liberalisation of the media has also led to a concentration of ownership. A few large corporations now control a significant portion of the media market. This raises concerns about the diversity of voices and opinions. Critics argue that this 'corporate culture' can lead to a focus on entertainment over information, a preference for sensationalism over serious journalism, and a reluctance to critically report on the activities of large corporations, who are also major advertisers.

Threat To Many Indigenous Craft And Literary Traditions And Knowledge Systems

The dominance of mass-produced media and culture can pose a threat to the survival of many traditional and indigenous forms of art, craft, literature, and knowledge. For example, the rich traditions of oral storytelling, folk music, and local theatre may find it difficult to compete for attention with the slickly produced content of television and cinema. The homogenizing influence of the media can lead to a loss of cultural diversity as local traditions are either forgotten or commodified and stripped of their original meaning for the tourist market.